List 2 Geology地质学
glacier ★★美[‘ɡleɪʃər]
n. 冰河；冰川
【例句】（TPO15–Glacier Formation）
➢ For a glacier to grow or maintain its mass, there must be sufficient snowfall to match or exceed the annual loss through melting, evaporation, and calving, which occurs when the glacier loses solid chunks as icebergs to the sea or to large lakes. 要保持或增加冰川的体积，就必须具有足够的降雪量，以抵消或者超过每年因融雪、蒸发或者以海洋和湖泊中的冰山形式的裂冰的数量。
snowfall ★美[‘snoʊfɔl]
n. 降雪；降雪量
【例句】（TPO15–Glacier Formation）
➢ With further melting, refreezing, and increased weight from newer snowfall above, the snow reaches a granular recrystallized stage intermediate between flakes and ice known as firn. 雪继续融化、再结冰，并且还要承受上方新的积雪增加的重量，待这些积雪达到一种介于冰片与冰之间的阶段，颗粒物便会再次形成晶状体，这一阶段被称作积雪过程。
melt ★★★★美[melt]
vi. 融化；熔化；消散
vt. 使融化；使熔化；使消散
n. 熔化物；融化；熔解
【例句】（TPO15–Glacier Formation）
➢ With further melting, refreezing, and increased weight from newer snowfall above, the snow reaches a granular recrystallized stage intermediate between flakes and ice known as firn. 雪继续融化、再结冰，并且还要承受上方新的积雪增加的重量，待这些积雪达到一种介于冰片与冰之间的阶段，颗粒物便会再次形成晶状体，这一阶段被称作积雪过程。
glacial美[‘ɡleɪʃl]
adj. 冰川（期）的；非常冷的；缓慢的； （人）态度不友善的
【例句】（TPO15–Glacier Formation）
➢ With additional time, pressure, and refrozen meltwater from above, the small firn granules become larger, interlocked crystals of blue glacial ice. 时间、压力不断增加，并且位于上方的融雪重新结冰，那些较小的积雪颗粒开始变大且与透明的蓝色冰层连结。
Antarctica美[æn‘tɑrktɪkə]
n. 南极洲
【例句】（TPO15–Glacier Formation）
➢ Two percent may be a deceiving figure, however, since over 80 percent of the world’s freshwater is locked up as ice in glaciers, with the majority of it in Antarctica. 2%这个数字可能并不属实，因为全球有超过80%的淡水以冰块的形态存在于冰川中，其中大部分处于南极洲。
hydrologic美[haɪd’rəʊlɑdʒɪk]
adj. 水文的（=hydrological）
【例句】（TPO15–Glacier Formation）
➢ Glaciers are part of Earth’s hydrologic cycle and are second only to the oceans in the total amount of water contained. 冰川是地球水循环的一部分，水容量仅次于排名第一的海洋。
adj. 淡水的；内河（航行）的
n. 淡水
【例句】（TPO15–Glacier Formation）
➢ Two percent may be a deceiving figure, however, since over 80 percent of the world’s freshwater is locked up as ice in glaciers, with the majority of it in Antarctica. 2%这个数字可能并不属实，因为全球有超过80%的淡水以冰块的形态存在于冰川中，其中大部分处于南极洲。
glaciation ★★美[ˌɡleɪsI’eɪʃn]
n. 冰河作用；冻结成冰
【例句】（TPO19–Discovering the Ice Ages）
➢ The drift of the last glaciation was deposited during one of the most recent epochs of geologic time, the Pleistocene, which lasted from 1.8 million to 10,000 years ago. 上次冰川作用的漂流物在最近的一个地质时期——更新世，从180万年前持续到1万年前——被沉淀下来。
Pleistocene美[’plaIstYJsin]
n. 更新世；洪积世
adj. 更新世的
【例句】（TPO19–Discovering the Ice Ages）
➢ The drift of the last glaciation was deposited during one of the most recent epochs of geologic time, the Pleistocene, which lasted from 1.8 million to 10,000 years ago. 上次冰川作用的漂流物在最近的一个地质时期——更新世，从180万年持续到1万年前——被沉淀下来。
adj. 大陆的；欧洲大陆的
【例句】（TPO19–Discovering the Ice Ages）
➢ Eventually, Agassiz and others convinced geologists and the general public that a great continental glaciation had extended the polar ice caps far into regions that now enjoy temperate climates. 最终，阿加西和他的支持者说服了地质学家和公众相信大型的大陆冰川已经把极地冰盖延伸到如今的温带气候地区。
sediment ★★美[‘sedɪmənt]
n. 沉淀物
【例句】（TPO20–Fossil Preservation）
➢ However, the chances of escaping complete destruction are vastly improved if the organism happens to have a mineralized skeleton and dies in a place where it can be quickly buried by sediment. 不过，如果生物体碰巧具有矿化的骨骼并且死于可以迅速被沉积物掩埋的地方，逃脱被完全摧毁的概率便会大大增加。
marine ★★★★美[mə’rin]
adj. 海的；海事的；海生的；航海的
n. 海运业；船舶；水兵
【例句】（TPO20–Fossil Preservation）
➢ Although most fossils are found in marine sedimentary rocks, they also are found in terrestrial deposits left by streams and lakes. 虽然多数化石是在海洋沉积岩中被发现的，但是在溪流和湖泊留下的陆相沉积物中也发现过。
epoch ★★★美[‘epək]
n. 时期； 时代； 新纪元； 划时代的大事； 【地】世
【例句】（TPO19–Discovering the Ice Ages）
➢ The drift of the last glaciation was deposited during one of the most recent epochs of geologic time, the Pleistocene, which lasted from 1.8 million to 10,000 years ago. 上次冰川作用的漂流物在最近的一个地质时期——更新世，从180万年前持续到1万年前——被沉淀下来。
calcite ★美[‘kælsaɪt]
n. 方解石
【例句】（TPO19–Discovering the Ice Ages）
➢ The fossils buried in Pleistocene and earlier ocean sediments were of foraminifera—small, single-celled marine organisms that secrete shells of calcium carbonate, or calcite. 埋在更新世时期的化石和更早的海洋沉积物是有孔虫类，它们是一种小的单细胞海洋生物，会分泌碳酸钙壳或者方解石。
interglacial美[ˌɪntə‘ɡleɪʃəl]
adj. 间冰期的
【例句】（TPO19–Discovering the Ice Ages）
➢ It soon became clear that there were multiple glacial ages during the Pleistocene, with warmer interglacial intervals between them. 很快我们就知道了在更新代有多个冰川代，这中间还有温暖的间冰期。
erosion ★★★美[ɪ‘rəʊʒn]
n. 腐蚀；侵蚀；减少，流失
【例句】（TPO19–Discovering the Ice Ages）
➢ In all these diverse regions, Agassiz saw signs of glacial erosion and sedimentation. 在所有这些不同的地区里，阿加西看到了冰川侵蚀和沉积的迹象。
Beringia ★★美[bY‘rInjə]
n. 白令陆桥
【例句】（TPO45–Microscopes the Beringia Landscape）
➢ The recognition that many aspects of the modem flora and fauna were present on both sides of the Bering Sea as remnants of the iceage landscape led to this region being named Beringia. 人们认为现在白令海两岸的植物群和动物群在许多方面都可以被认为是冰河时代的残存者，所以这个地区被命名为白令陆桥。
flora ★★美[‘flɔːrə]
n. 植物；群落
Flora ： 美[罗神]花神弗洛拉； 弗洛拉（女名）
【例句】（TPO49–Ancient Coastlines）
➢ Falls in sea level often exposed a number of important land bridges, such as those linking Alaska to Northeast Asia and Britain to northwest Europe, a phenomenon with far-reaching effects not only on human colonization of the globe but also on the environment as a whole—the flora and fauna of isolated or insular areas were radically and often irreversibly affected. 海平面的下降经常会使得许多重要的大陆桥显露出来，比如连接阿拉斯加和东北亚的大陆桥，连接大不列颠和欧洲西北部的大陆桥。这种现象不仅对人类的全球殖民化有着深远影响，对整个环境也一样——对位于封闭区域或海岛上的动植物的影响是根本性的，而且通常是不可逆的。
Siberia ★ 美[saI‘bIəriə]
n. 西伯利亚
【例句】（TPO45–Microscopes the Beringia Landscape）
➢ During the peak of the last ice age, Northeast Asia （Siberia） and Alaska were connected by a broad land mass called the Bering Land Bridge. 上一次冰期高峰，东北亚（西伯利亚）和阿拉斯加被一名为白令陆桥的广阔大陆块连接起来。
n. 羚羊；羚羊皮革
【例句】（TPO45–Microscopes the Beringia Landscape）
➢ This land mass supported herds of now-extinct species of mammoth, bison, and horse and somewhat modern versions of caribou, musk ox, elk, and Saiga antelope. 这个陆块中生存着成群的现今已灭绝的猛犸象、野牛、马以及现代版的驯鹿、麝牛、麋鹿和赛加羚羊。
coastline ★美[‘koʊstlaɪn]
n. 海岸线
【例句】（TPO49–Ancient Coastlines）
➢ Raised beaches are remnants of former coastlines at higher levels relative to the present shoreline and visible, for instance, along the Californian coast north of San Francisco. 海滩高地就是海平面更高时（与目前高度相比）海岸线的残迹，非常明显，例如旧金山北部加利福尼亚海岸沿线。
shoreline美[‘ʃɔrlaɪn]
n. 海岸线；沿海地带
【例句】（TPO49–Ancient Coastlines）
➢ In Tokyo Bay, for example, shell mounds of the Jomon period （about 10,000 to 300 B.C.E.） mark the position of the shoreline at a time of maximum inundation by the sea （6,500–5,500 years ago）, when, through tectonic movement, the sea was three to five meters higher in relation to the contemporary landmass of Japan than at present. 比如，在东京湾，绳文时代（大约公元前10 000年到公元前300年）的贝冢标志着6500—5500年前海水最泛滥时海岸线的位置。当时，经由构造运动，海面与同时期大陆之间的高度差比现在的要多3～5米。
adj. 筑造的；建筑的；构造的； 【地】地壳构造的
【例句】（TPO49–Ancient Coastlines）
➢ In Tokyo Bay, for example, shell mounds of the Jomon period （about 10,000 to 300 B.C.E.） mark the position of the shoreline at a time of maximum inundation by the sea （6,500–5,500 years ago）, when, through tectonic movement, the sea was three to five meters higher in relation to the contemporary landmass of Japan than at present. 比如，在东京湾，绳文时代（大约公元前10 000年到公元前300年）的贝冢标志着6 500—5 500年前海水最泛滥时海岸线的位置。当时，经由构造运动，海面与同时期大陆之间的高度差比现在的要多3～5米。
submerge ★★★美[səb’mɜːrdʒ]
vt. 使浸没；潜入水中；覆盖
vi. 浸没
【例句】（TPO49–Ancient Coastlines）
➢ The assessment of past rises and falls in sea level requires study of submerged land surfaces off the coast and of raised or elevated beaches on land. 评估过去的海平面上升和下降需要研究沿海被淹没的陆地表面和陆地上的海滩高地。
fauna ★★美[‘fɔnə]
n. （某地区或某时期的）所有动物
【例句】（TPO49–Ancient Coastlines）
➢ Falls in sea level often exposed a number of important land bridges, such as those linking Alaska to Northeast Asia and Britain to northwest Europe, a phenomenon with far-reaching effects not only on human colonization of the globe but also on the environment as a whole—the flora and fauna of isolated or insular areas were radically and often irreversibly affected. 海平面的下降经常会使得许多重要的大陆桥显露出来，比如连接阿拉斯加和东北亚的大陆桥，连接大不列颠和欧洲西北部的大陆桥。这种现象不仅对人类的全球殖民化有着深远影响，对整个环境也一样——对位于封闭区域或海岛上的动植物的影响是根本性的，而且通常是不可逆的。
cliff ★★★美[klɪf]
n. 悬崖；峭壁
【例句】（TPO24–Moving into Pueblos）
➢ In the Mesa Verde area of the ancient North American Southwest, living patterns changed in the thirteenth century, with large numbers of people moving into large communal dwellings called Pueblos, often constructed at the edges of canyons, especially on the sides of cliffs. 在古代北美西南部的梅萨维德地区，生活模式在十三世纪发生了变化，大量人群移居大型公社居住地，这种地方被称为普韦布洛，通常建造在峡谷边缘，尤其是在悬崖边。
volcanic ★美[vɑl‘kænɪk]
adj. 火山的；猛烈的
【例句】（TPO25–The Surface of Mars）
➢ Age estimates ranging from four billion years for Mars’s southern highlands to a few hundred million years in the youngest volcanic areas were obtained in this way. 从火星南部高地的40亿年至最年轻的火山地区的几千万年都是用同样的方法估算的。
mantle ★★美['mæntl]
n. 斗篷；覆盖物；墙的外皮； （汽灯的）纱罩； 【地】地幔
v. 覆盖；笼罩；脸红
【例句】（TPO27–The Formation of Volcanic Islands）
➢ Other islands, including Tahiti and Easter Islands in the pacific, Reunion and Mauritius in the India Ocean, and indeed most of the large islands in the world’s oceans, owe their existence to mantle plumes. 其他岛屿，包括太平洋的塔希提岛和复活节岛，印度洋的留尼汪岛和毛里求斯群岛，实际上，多数世界上大洋中的大岛都是由地幔柱的扩展形成的。
subduction美[səb’dʌkʃən]
n. 【地】潜没（指地壳的板块沉到另一板块之下）
【例句】（TPO27–The Formation of Volcanic Islands）
➢ The plates have edges that are spreading ridges （where two plates are moving apart and new seafloor is being created）, subduction zones （where two plates collide and one plunges beneath the other）, or transform faults （where two plates neither converge nor diverge but merely move past one another）. 板块的边缘是扩张脊（两个板块分离，新的海底形成的地方） 、俯冲带（两板块碰撞，一个俯冲到另一个下面） ，或者是形成断层（两板块既不聚集也不分散，但只是互相错位） 。
desertification美[dɪˌzɜːrtɪfɪ’keɪʃn]
n. （土壤）荒漠化；沙漠化
【例句】（TPO2–Desert Formation）
➢ Desertification is accomplished primarily through the loss of stabilizing natural vegetation and the subsequent accelerated erosion of the soil by wind and water. 沙漠化主要通过以下过程实现：首先自然植被不断减少，随后风力和雨水加速了土壤的侵蚀。
fuel ★★★★美[‘fjuːəl]
n. 燃料；刺激因素
vt. 对……供给燃料
vi. 加燃料
【例句】（TPO6–Powering the Industrial Revolution）
➢ This “atmospheric engine,” invented by Thomas Savery and vastly improved by his partner, Thomas Newcomen, embodied revolutionary principles, but it was so slow and wasteful of fuel that it could not be employed outside the coal mines for which it had been designed. 这一由托马斯·赛佛瑞发明并由他的同伴托马斯·纽科门对其进行改良的“大气引擎” ，采用革命性的工作原理。但其效率低下且浪费燃料，无法在煤矿以外的地区使用，这与最初的设计期望背道而驰。
livestock ★美[‘laɪvstɑk]
n. 家畜；牲畜
【例句】（TPO20–Westward Migration）
➢ The story of the westward movement of population in the United States is, in the main, the story of the expansion of American agriculture—of the development of new areas for the raising of livestock and the cultivation of wheat, corn, tobacco, and cotton. 美国西进运动的故事大体说来其实就是美国农业扩张的故事，也就是一场开辟用于饲养家畜以及种植小麦、玉米、烟草和棉花的新土地的运动。
aquifer ★美[‘ækwɪfər]
n. 含水层
【例句】（TPO28–Groundwater）
➢ Extraction of water depends on two properties of the aquifer: porosity and permeability. 从地层中取水取决于水层的两个因素：孔隙度和渗透率。
arid ★★美[‘ærɪd]
adj. 干燥的；不毛的；枯燥的；无趣的；没有生气的
➢ Groundwater commonly collects in stream drainages but may remain entirely beneath the surface of dry stream-beds in arid regions. 地下水通常在小溪中聚集，但在干旱地区也可能全部停留在干涸的河床下。
limestone ★★美[‘laɪmstoʊn]
n. 石灰石
【例句】（TPO41–Climate of Venus）
➢ The answer to the first question is that carbon dioxide is still found in abundance on Earth, but now, instead of being in the form of atmospheric carbon dioxide, it is either dissolved in the oceans or chemically bound into carbonate rocks, such as the limestone and marble that formed in the oceans. 第一个问题的答案是，地球上的二氧化碳仍然很多，但现在不是以大气中的二氧化碳的形式出现，而是溶解在海洋里或通过化学作用进入碳酸盐岩中，比如在海洋中形成的石灰石和大理石。
saline ★★美[‘seɪlin]
adj. 含盐的；咸的
n. 生理盐溶液；盐湖
【例句】（TPO5–Minerals and Plants）
➢ Saline soils, which have high concentrations of sodium chloride and other salts, limit plant growth, and research continues to focus on developing salt-tolerant varieties of agricultural crops. 含有高浓度的氯化钠和其他盐类的盐碱土壤抑制植物生长，于是研究继续集中培育耐盐农作物品种。
exogenous ★美[ek’sɑdʒənəs]
adj. 外生的；外界产生的；由外生长的
【例句】（TPO12–Water in the Desert）
➢ These rivers and river systems are known as “exogenous” because their sources lie outside the arid zone. 这些河流及河系因为源头位于干旱地区以外而被称为“外流河” 。
fracture ★★★美[‘fræktʃər]
n. 破碎；骨折
vt. 破碎；使破裂
vi. 断裂
【例句】（TPO21–Geothermal Energy）
➢ The water is usually naturally occurring groundwater that seeps down along fractures in the rock; less typically, the water is artificially introduced by being pumped down from the surface. 这些水通常是沿着岩石的断面下渗的天然地下水，少数情况下是人为从地表泵入的水。
fraction ★★★美[‘frækʃn]
n. 小部分；少许；分数；片段
【例句】（TPO29–Competition）
➢ The result was the extermination of a large fraction of the South American mammals, which were apparently unable to withstand the competition from invading North American species—although added predation was also an important factor. 结果是大量南美洲哺乳动物因抵抗不了来自北美洲物种的竞争而灭绝——尽管过度捕杀也是一个很重要的因素。
savanna ★美[sə’vænə]
n. （非洲）大草原；无树平原
【例句】（TPO31–Savanna Formation）
➢ One theory behind savanna formation is that wet forest species are unable to withstand the dry season, and thus savanna, rather than rain forest, is favored on the site. 一种稀树草原形成的理论认为潮湿森林不能忍受这种旱季，因此在该地区就形成了稀树草原而不是雨林。
humus ★美[‘hjuːməs]
n. 腐殖质
【例句】（TPO53–Rain Forest Soils）
➢ High moisture and temperatures speed the growth of soil microbes that decompose organic compounds, so tropical soils typically contain far lower amounts of organic materials （humus） than do other forest or grassland soils. 湿度大与温度高加速了可以分解有机质的土壤中微生物的增长，因此，热带土壤的有机质含量（腐殖质）基本上远远小于其他森林或草地土壤。
pastureland美[‘pæstʃərlænd]
n. 牧场
【例句】（TPO31–Savanna Formation）
➢ On certain sites, particularly in South America, savanna formation seems related to frequent cutting and burning of moist forests for pastureland. 在特定区域，尤其是南美，稀树草原的形成可能跟频繁地砍伐和燃烧森林以便形成牧场有关。
perennial ★★美[pə’reniəl]
adj. 永久的；反复出现的；多年生的
n. 多年生植物
【例句】（TPO26–Survival of Plants and Animals in Desert Conditions）
➢ There are two general classes of vegetation: long-lived perennials, which may be succulent （water-storing） and are often dwarfed and woody, and annuals or ephemerals, which have a short life cycle and may form a fairly dense stand immediately after rain. 沙漠地区的植物大致可以分为两类：寿命较长的多年生植物，这类植物一般都是多肉植物（可以储水） ，经常是比较矮小的木本植物；一年生或寿命更短的植物，这类植物生命周期短，可以在降雨后快速而密集地形成。
phosphorus ★美[‘fɑsfərəs]
n. 磷
【例句】（TPO31–Savanna Formation）
➢ For example, savanna soils, like many rain forest soils, are typically oxisols （dominated by certain oxide minerals） and ultisols （soils containing no calcium carbonate）, with a high acidity and notably low concentrations of such minerals as phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, and potassium, while aluminum levels are high. 例如，稀树草原土壤，与雨林土壤相似，都是氧化土（大部分是某种氧化物矿物）和极育土（没有碳酸钙的土壤） ，酸性很强，但像磷、钙、镁和钾等矿物含量很少，而铝的含量很高。
inhabit ★★★美[ɪn‘hæbɪt]
v. 居住于；占据；栖息
【例句】（TPO36–Soil Formation）
➢ Under favorable conditions, a million or more of these tiny, singlecelled plants can inhabit each cubic centimeter of soil. 在有利条件下，一百万甚至更多的这种微小的单细胞植物可以栖息在一立方厘米的土壤之中。
earthworm美[‘ɜːrθwɜːrm]
n. 蚯蚓
【例句】（TPO36–Soil Formation）
➢ Under exceptionally favorable conditions, up to a million earthworms （with a total body weight exceeding 450 kilograms） may inhabit an acre of soil. 在异常有利的条件下，高达100万条蚯蚓（身体总重量超过450千克）可以生活在一英亩的土壤之中。
cyanobacteria美[9saɪnəJbæk’tiYriY]
n. 蓝细菌
【例句】（TPO53–Rain Forest Soils）
➢ By growing above the ground, the roots are exposed to sunlight, which the cyanobacteria require for growth. 根部通过长到地面上暴露在阳光下，以此汲取蓝细菌所需的养分。
decay ★★★美[dɪ’keɪ]
v. （使）衰退； （使）腐败； （使）腐烂
n. 衰退；腐烂；腐败
【例句】（TPO20–Fossil Preservation）
➢ Attack by scavengers and bacteria, chemical decay, and destruction by erosion and other geologic agencies make the odds against preservation very high. 食腐动物和细菌的破坏、化学性腐烂、腐蚀以及其他地质因素都会非常不利于保存。
lush ★★美[lʌʃ]
adj. 苍翠繁茂的；茂盛的；丰富的
n. 酒；酒鬼
v. 喝酒
【例句】（TPO31–Savanna Formation）
➢ Though most savannas are found on sites with poor soils （because of either moisture conditions or nutrient levels of both）, poor soils can and do support lush rain forest. 虽然绝大部分稀树草原土壤贫瘠（要么是水分少，要么是养分水平低） ，但是贫瘠土壤可以并且曾经支撑过茂密的雨林。
n. 豆类；豆荚
【例句】（TPO17–Symbiotic Relationships）
➢ The third type of symbiosis, mutualism, benefits both partners in the relationship, legume plants and their nitrogen-fixing bacteria, and the interactions between flowering plants and their pollinators, are examples of mutualistic association. 第三种关系，互利共生，是指共生双方能够互利互惠，其中典型的例子有豆科植物和固氮细菌，以及开花植物和授粉生物。
porosity ★美[pɔ’rɑsəti]
n. 多孔；多孔性； 【物】孔隙度
【例句】（TPO28–Groundwater）
➢ Extraction of water depends on two properties of the aquifer: porosity and permeability. 从地层中取水取决于水层的两个因素：孔隙度和渗透率。
cement ★★★美[sɪ’ment]
n. 水泥；纽带；结合剂；牙骨质；补牙物；基石
vt. 用水泥涂；巩固
vi. 接合
【例句】（TPO7–Ancient Rome and Greece）
➢ Like the stone of Roman wall, which were held together both by the regularity of the design and by that peculiarly powerful Roman cement, so the various parts of the Roman realm were bonded into a massive, monolithic entity by physical, organizational, and psychological controls. 罗马墙上的石块是靠设计的规整和特别有力的胶和剂而被固定在一起的，与此相同，罗马帝国的各个部分也因物理的、组织的和精神的束缚而组成了一个坚若磐石的整体。
n. 碎石
v. 铺碎石；使困惑
【例句】（TPO12–Water in the Desert）
➢ Most shallow aquifers in sand and gravel deposits produce lower yields, but they can be rapidly recharged. 大多数沙石中较浅的蓄水层贮水量少，但可以迅速再生。
meteoric美[ˌmitI'ɔrɪk]
adj. 流星的；昙花一现的；大气的
【例句】（TPO1–Groundwater）
➢ By far the most abundant type of groundwater is meteoric water; this is the groundwater that circulates as part of the water cycle. 到现在为止，大气水是最丰富的地下水资源，是地下水在水循环中的一个环节。
porous ★★美[‘pɔrəs]
adj. 可渗透的；多孔的
【例句】（TPO43–The Origin of Petroleum）
➢ Hence, because oil and water do not mix, water remains fastened to the quartz or carbonate grains, while oil occupies the central parts of the larger openings in the porous sandstone or limestone. 因此，由于石油和水不混合，水会依附在石英或碳酸盐颗粒上，而石油则占据了多孔的砂岩或石灰岩中有着更大空隙的中央区域。
consolidation美[kənˌsɑlə’deɪʃən]
n. 巩固；加强；统一；合并；联合
【例句】（TPO1–Groundwater）
➢ This is because the gaps among the original grains are often not totally plugged with cementing chemicals; also, parts of the original grains may become dissolved by percolating groundwater, either while consolidation is taking place or at any time afterwards. 因为最初颗粒间的缝隙通常并未完全被黏固的化学物质塞满，而且部分颗粒很可能在固化时或固化后被渗入的地下水溶解。
well ★★★★★美[wel]
adv. 很好地；相当地
int. 好吧；啊
adj. 健康的；良好的；适宜的
n. 井；源泉；楼梯井
v. 涌出
【例句】（TPO3–Depletion of the Ogallala Aquifer）
➢ The first wells were drilled into the Ogallala during the drought years of the early 1930s. 20世纪30年代初，奥加拉拉正处于干旱时期，人们打出了第一口井。
irrigation美[ˌɪrɪ’ɡeɪʃn]
n. 灌溉； 【医】冲洗
【例句】（TPO5–Minerals and Plants）
➢ This scenario begins with the planting of hyperaccumulating species in the target area, such as an abandoned mine or an irrigation pond contaminated by runoff. 这套方案首先从在目标区域种植超积累物种开始，如在废弃矿井和被径流污染的灌溉池塘中种植。
semiarid美[ˌsemɪ'ærɪd]
adj. 半干旱的
【例句】（TPO28–Early Saharan Pastoralists）
➢ As recently as 6,000 B.C. the southern frontier of the desert was far to the north of where it is now, while semiarid grassland and shallow freshwater lakes covered much of what are now arid plains. 直到公元前6 000年前，沙漠的南部边界比现在的位置要靠北很多，那时半干旱的草原和浅淡水湖泊覆盖了现在干旱的平原。
Mediterranean ★★美[ˌmedɪtə'reɪniən]
adj. 地中海的
n. 地中海
【例句】（TPO29–Characteristics of Roman Pottery）
➢ The high quality of Roman pottery is very easy to appreciate when handling actual pieces of tableware or indeed kitchenware and amphorae （the large jars used throughout the Mediterranean for the transport and storage of liquids, such as wine and oil）. 当把玩古罗马陶制餐具或厨房用具和双耳陶罐（遍及整个地中海地区用以运输或储存酒或油之类液体的大型陶罐）时，人们对其良好的质量赞不绝口。
layer ★★★★美['ler]
n. 层
vi. 分层
vt. 将某物堆积成层
【例句】（TPO8–Running Water on Mars）
➢ Furthermore, Mars Global Surveyor data released in 2003 seem to indicate that the Martian surface contains too few carbonate rock layers—layers containing compounds of carbon and oxygen—that should have been formed in abundance in an ancient ocean. 而且，2003发布的火星全球调查数据也表明火星表面含有太少的碳化岩层——含有碳氧化合物的岩层——它们应该是在古代海洋中大量形成的。
gypsum ★美[‘dʒɪpsəm]
n. 石膏
【例句】（TPO7–The Geologic History of the Mediterranean）
➢ The sample consisted of pebbles of hardened sediment that had once been soft, deep-sea mud, as well as granules of gypsum and fragments of volcanic rock. 这个样本包含深海泥（曾经很软）硬化沉淀后的鹅卵石块、石膏块以及火山岩碎块。
pebble ★★★美['pebl]
n. 鹅卵石
n. 水晶；水晶透镜
v. 用卵石铺；用卵石投掷；使有卵石纹
【例句】（TPO7–The Geologic History of the Mediterranean）
➢ The sample consisted of pebbles of hardened sediment that had once been soft, deep-sea mud, as well as granules of gypsum and fragments of volcanic rock. 这个样本包含深海泥（曾经很软）硬化沉淀后的鹅卵石块、石膏块以及火山岩碎块。
Atlantic ★★★美[æt'læntɪk]
adj. 大西洋的
n. 大西洋
【例句】（TPO7–The Geologic History of the Mediterranean）
➢ The investigators theorized that about 20 million years ago, the Mediterranean was a broad seaway linked to the Atlantic by two narrow straits. 调查者们构思了这样的理论：大约2 000万年前，地中海是一条宽阔的航道，它通过两条狭窄的海峡与大西洋连接。
dome ★★★美[doʊm]
n. 圆屋顶；苍穹； 【俚】脑袋；圆形的火山口
vt. 加圆屋顶于……上；使成圆屋顶
vi. 成圆顶状
【例句】（TPO7–The Geologic History of the Mediterranean）
➢ Were they salt domes such as are common along the United States Gulf Coast, and if so, why should there have been so much solid crystalline salt beneath the floor of the Mediterranean? 它们是像美国墨西哥海湾海岸一带的含盐穹顶状巨块吗？如果是的话，为什么在地中海海底之下会有这么多固体的结晶盐呢？
invertebrate ★美[ɪn‘vɜːrtɪbrət]
n. 无脊椎动物
adj. 无脊椎的
【例句】（TPO7–The Geologic History of the Mediterranean）
➢ Increasing salinity caused by the evaporation resulted in the extermination of scores of invertebrate species. 由蒸发引起的越来越高的盐度造成无脊椎动物种类的灭绝。
crystalline ★美[‘krɪstəlaɪn]
adj. 水晶（般）的；水晶做的；透明的
【例句】（TPO7–The Geologic History of the Mediterranean）
➢ Were they salt domes such as are common along the United States Gulf Coast, and if so, why should there have been so much solid crystalline salt beneath the floor of the Mediterranean? 它们是像美国墨西哥海湾海岸一带的含盐穹顶状巨块吗？如果是的话，为什么在地中海海底之下会有这么多固体的结晶盐呢？
extermination美[ɪkˌstɜːmɪ‘neɪʃn]
n. 根绝；灭绝
【例句】（TPO29–Competition）
➢ The result was the extermination of a large fraction of the South American mammals, which were apparently unable to withstand the competition from invading North American species—although added predation was also an important factor. 结果是大量南美洲哺乳动物因抵抗不了来自北美洲物种的竞争而灭绝——尽管过度捕杀也是一个很重要的因素。
seepage美[‘sipɪdʒ]
n. 渗漏；渗出的量
【例句】（TPO24–Lake Water）
➢ Note the word “net”: measuring the actual amounts of groundwater
seepage into the lake and out of the lake is a much more complicated matter than merely inferring their difference. 注意一下“净值”这个词:测量真正渗入和渗出湖中的地下水量比仅仅推断它们的不
同要复杂得多。
permeable ★美[‘pɜːrmiəbl]
adj. 可渗透的；可穿透的
【例句】（TPO43–The Origin of Petroleum）
➢ When oil and gas are squeezed out of the shale in which they originated and enter a body of sandstone or limestone somewhere above, they migrate readily because sandstones （consisting of quartz grains） and limestones （consisting of carbonate minerals） are much more permeable than any shale. 当石油和天然气被从形成它们的页岩中挤出，进入砂岩或石灰岩时，它们就很容易流动，因为砂岩（由石英颗粒组成）和石灰岩（由碳酸盐矿物组成）比页岩的渗透性要强。
reservoir ★★★美[‘rezərvwɑːr]
n. 水库；储藏；蓄水池；积蓄
【例句】（TPO14–Maya Water Problems）
➢ The explanation is that the Maya excavated depressions, or modified natural depressions, and then plugged up leaks in the karst by plastering the bottoms of the depressions in order to create reservoirs, which collected rain from large plastered catchment basins and stored it for use in the dry season. 有种解释是，玛雅人挖掘或者改造自然的低地，然后在低地的底部涂抹上灰泥来堵住喀斯特地貌的裂口，从而建成水库，收集雨水以备旱季之用。
drainage ★★美[‘dreɪnɪdʒ]
n. 排水；排水系统；污水； 【医】引流（法） ，导液（法）
【例句】（TPO28–Groundwater）
➢ If the water table intersect the land surface, groundwater will flow out onto the surface at springs, whether to be collected there or to subsequently flow farther along a drainage. 如果地下水位与地表相交，地下水将以喷泉的形式涌出地面，要么就地聚集，要么沿排水通道流向更远的地方。
igneous ★美[‘ɪɡniəs]
adj. （指岩石）火成的；火的；似火的
【例句】（TPO28–Groundwater）
➢ However, even igneous and metamorphic rocks may act as groundwater reservoirs if extensive fracturing occurs in such rocks and if the fracture system is interconnected. 但是即便是火成岩和变质岩也可因裂缝大量发育并相互连接而成为储水层。
topography ★美[tə’pɑɡrəfi]
n. 地志；地形学；地势；局部解剖
【例句】（TPO28–Groundwater）
➢ Because the surface of the water table is not flat but instead rises and falls with topography, groundwater is affected by gravity in the same fashion as surface water. 因为地下水位表面并非水平，而是沿着地势起伏，地下水和地表水受到重力影响的模式相同。
adj. 颗粒间的；晶粒间的；内在晶粒状的
【例句】（TPO28–Groundwater）
➢ In the intergranular spaces of rocks, however, fluid must flow around and between grains in a tortuous path; this winding path causes a resistance to flow. 在粒间孔发育的岩石中，流体必须在颗粒周围的曲折通道中流动；这种曲折通道会对流动产生阻力。
petroleum ★★★美[pə’troʊliəm]
n. 石油
【例句】（TPO43–The Origin of Petroleum）
➢ Two additional kinds of evidence support the hypothesis that petroleum is a product of the decomposition of organic matter: oil possesses optical properties known only in hydrocarbons derived from organic matter, and oil contains nitrogen and certain compounds believed to originate only in living matter. 另外还有两类证据证实了石油是一种有机物的分解产物的假说：一是石油具有一些光学特性，这些特性只有来源于有机物的碳氢化合物才有；二是石油还含有氮和某些化合物，这些化合物被认为只能来源于有生命的物质。
carbonate ★美[‘kɑrbənət]
n. 碳酸盐；黑金刚石
v. 使含二氧化碳
【例句】（TPO43–The Origin of Petroleum）
➢ Hence, because oil and water do not mix, water remains fastened to the quartz or carbonate grains, while oil occupies the central parts of the larger openings in the porous sandstone or limestone. 因此，由于石油和水不混合，水会依附在石英或碳酸盐颗粒上，而石油则占据了多孔的砂岩或石灰岩中有着更大空隙的中央区域。
n. 钻孔机；钻子；反复操练；播种机
v. 练习；钻孔； （军事）训练
➢ Knowing how much oil has been found in an intensively drilled area, such as eastern Texas, experts make estimates of probable volumes in other regions where rock types and structures are similar to those in eastern Texas. 在一个集中钻探的区域，如东部得克萨斯州，在知道此处已经发现的石油储量之后，专家们以此估计其他岩石类型和结构与其类似的区域的潜在石油储量。
quartz ★★★美[kwɔrts]
n. 石英
【例句】（TPO43–The Origin of Petroleum）
➢ Hence, because oil and water do not mix, water remains fastened to the quartz or carbonate grains, while oil occupies the central parts of the larger openings in the porous sandstone or limestone. 因此，由于石油和水不混合，水会依附在石英或碳酸盐颗粒上，而石油则占据了多孔的砂岩或石灰岩中有着更大空隙的中央区域。
sandstone ★美[‘sændstoʊn]
n. 砂岩
【例句】（TPO43–The Origin of Petroleum）
➢ Hence, because oil and water do not mix, water remains fastened to the quartz or carbonate grains, while oil occupies the central parts of the larger openings in the porous sandstone or limestone. 因此，由于石油和水不混合，水会依附在石英或碳酸盐颗粒上，而石油则占据了多孔的砂岩或石灰岩中有着更大空隙的中央区域。
fine ★★★★★美[faɪn]
adj. 好的；优质的；精致的；晴朗的；健康的；细微的
【例句】（TPO44–Seagrasses）
➢ Since most seagrass systems are depositional environments, they eventually accumulate organic material that leads to the creation of fine-grained sediments with a much higher organic content than that of the surrounding unvegetated areas. 由于绝大多数海草系统都处于沉积环境，它们最终会积累下有机物质，进而得到有机质含量远高于周围无植被区的细颗粒状沉淀物。
strata美[‘strɑːtə]
n. 地层（名词stratum的复数形式）
【例句】（TPO6–William Smith）
➢ But as more and more accumulations of strata were cataloged in more and more places, it became clear that the sequences of rocks sometimes differed from region to region and that no rock type was ever going to become a reliable time marker throughout the world. 但是，随着各地越来越多的岩层的积累和分类，岩层顺序也因地区的不同而不同，因此，全世界没有一种特定的岩层能被认作是划分地质年代的标志。
fossil ★★★美[‘fɑsl]
n. 化石；顽固不化的人；守旧者
【例句】（TPO6–William Smith）
➢ Some fossils endured through so many millions of years that they appear in many strata, but others occur only in a few strata, and a few species had their births and extinctions within one particular stratum. 有的化石经历了数百万年之久，它们存在于很多岩层中，但有的化石只存在于部分地层中，还有一部分生物的化石从出现至灭绝都只出现在一个特定的岩层中。
v. 保护；保存；保持
n. 禁猎区；蜜饯
【例句】（TPO20–Fossil Preservation）
➢ On occasion, animals and plants have been preserved after becoming immersed in tar or quicksand, trapped in ice or lava flows, or engulfed by rapid falls of volcanic ash. 有时，浸入焦油和流沙、陷入冰或熔岩流或被急速落下的火山灰吞噬的动植物得以保存下来。
shell ★★★★美[ʃel]
n. 壳；炮弹； 【计】外壳
v. 给脱粒；去壳；采集贝壳；炮轰
【例句】（TPO20–Fossil Preservation）
➢ The empty shell of a snail or clam may be left behind, and if it is sufficiently durable and resistant to dissolution, it may remain basically unchanged for a long period of time. 可能会留下蜗牛或蛤蜊空壳，如果空壳足够坚固并且能不被分解，就有可能在很长一段时间内基本上保持原样。
geothermal美[ˌdʒioʊ’θɜːrml]
adj. 地热的
【例句】（TPO21–Geothermal Energy）
➢ Geothermal energy becomes available in a practical form when underground heat is transferred by water that is heated as it passes through a subsurface region of hot rocks （a heat reservoir） that may be hundreds or thousands of feet deep. 水流经地表下可能几百甚至几千英尺深的热岩区域（一种热源）被加热，当被加热的水将热量传递出来时，地热能就可以实际形式加以利用了。
n. 资源；机敏；才略；寄托；消遣
【例句】（TPO21–Geothermal Energy）
➢ However, in many places （for example, California, Hawaii, the Philippine, Japan, Mexico, the rift valleys of Africa） the resource is potentially so large that its future will depend on the economics of production. 不过，在很多地方（例如加州、夏威夷、菲律宾、日本、墨西哥、非洲的裂谷） ，这种能源可能非常可观，它的前景将取决于经济效益。
seep ★★美[sip]
v. 渗出；渗漏
n. 渗漏；小泉；水坑
【例句】（TPO21–Geothermal Energy）
➢ The water is usually naturally occurring groundwater that seeps down along fractures in the rock; less typically, the water is artificially introduced by being pumped down from the surface. 这些水通常是沿着岩石的断面下渗的天然地下水，少数情况下是人为从地表泵入的水。
delta ★★★美[‘deltə]
n. （河流的）三角洲；希腊语第四个字母（Δ、δ）
【例句】（TPO35–Earth’s Age）
➢ By noting that individual floods deposit only thin layers of sediment, he was able to conclude that the Nile Delta had taken many thousands of years to build up. 他注意到单次洪水只能沉积薄薄的一层淤泥，由此得出结论：尼罗河三角洲的形成花费了数千年的时间。