第3章　文学与美国革命：1764-1815

Questions for Discussion and Writing Assignments

1What are the forms of writing most characteristic of this period? What kind of foresights guided the writers of essays and speeches in this period?

Key: In this period, forms of writing were various, including poetry, drama and novel, etc.

Many writers foresaw that America would be independent in a near future, and they devoted their writings to the independence cause of their nation.

2Give an overview of poetry, drama and the novel written in this period.

Key: Poetry, drama and novel all developed quickly in this period, and each genre had its outstanding representatives. As to poetry, Philip Freneau was an important poet of this time and he has been called the “Father of American Poetry”. He did not establish trends, but he represented qualities that were to be characteristic of the next half century. As to drama, Tyler is a dramatist best known for The Contrast, which was the first performed American comedy and therefore a milestone in American theatrical history. As to novel, some argue that William Hill Brown’s novel The Power of Sympathy (1789) should be recognized as the first American novel, because the secondary plot of the story was based on an actual story in Boston.

3What are some of the problems in the Enlightenment as viewed from the point of view of postmodernism?

Key: According to postmodernism, the Enlightenment has gone to extreme, because that the “Enlightened” people have done terrible things to nature, animals, even humankind themselves in a very long time.

4Why was European Enlightenment a positive force in 18th century America? In what specific ways did the Enlightenment intellectually shape the transition of American nationhood to the status of independence and federation?

Key: Because that it was these ideas from the Enlightenment that produced new types of men which included scientists, political philosophers, and religious rationalists. In America, Enlightenment ideas nurtured a greater participatory and interest in worldly affairs: Americans gained greater confidence that a more reasonable political and social order could be established. Under the influence of the Enlightenment, Americans also learned to take actions to resist oppressive power and to criticize and reform government.

5Why was Deism a result of the Enlightenment? What are the tenets of Deism as summarized by Thomas Jefferson?

Key: The emergence of Deism in the 18th century America came directly from the Enlightenment. Thomas Jefferson summarized deism as follows:

The doctrines of Jesus are simple, and tend all to the happiness of man.

1) That there is only one God, and he is all-perfect.

2) That there is a future state of rewards and punishments.

3) That to love God with all thy heart and thy neighbor as thyself is the sum of religion. These are the great points on which Christ endeavored to reform the religion of the Jews.

6How did Unitarianism simplify Christianity? How was Unitarianism connected with Deism?

Key: Unitarianism simplifies Christianity by “liberalizing” it. Unitarians believed that Jesus was a man and that Christianity is not a series of creeds but a way of life. Unitarians preferred the phrase “statements of faith” instead of “doctrines”.

Deism became institutionalized after the American Revolution. Institutionalized Deism is also Unitarianism that quickly gained followers in Boston, New York, and Philadelphia.

7In your own words, provide a general map of American culture before the 1760s.

Key: Before the 1760s, in addition to the Native American tribal cultures, American culture was a composite of European cultures brought to the New World by European traders and colonists; it was also a rich record of the agonies, glories, hopes, meager triumphs and disasters in their struggles. English influence was not the only cultural influence. It also included the cultural influence of the French, Dutch, German and African settlers.

8What were some of the political discontents against the British before the American Revolution?

Key: By 1763 the British colonies had attained a certain degree of maturity in political expression. A discontentment against the colonial policy of the British government grew. On the other hand, the successful conquest of French Canada by the combined forces of Britain and its colonies encouraged the ambition for expansionism in the colonies, which augmented the exploitation and oppression of the colonies by British government. After 1763, the imposition of direct taxation by the British government clashed with the newfound feeling of unity and liberties in the colonies.

9Why is it said that Benjamin Franklin exemplifies the Age of Experiment or the Age of Enlightenment?

Key: With his restless energy, his optimism and his innovative spirit, Franklin exemplifies the Age of Enlightenment or what Franklin himself called the Age of Experiment. In his lifetime, he was an inventor, scientist. As it is known to school children, it was Franklin who proved the identity of lightning and electricity by his famous kite experiment, and it was he who invented the lightning rod in 1752.

10Describe Franklin’s transcendental Deism.

Key: Franklin’s religion might be described as transcendental Deism that emphasizes a benevolent God who is manifest in nature and who can be best served by people doing good to fellow men. At the age of 19, under the influence of arguments in favor of natural religion, Franklin tried to prove that whatever exists is right. But later he burned most of the copies, claiming that he disliked the uncertainty of metaphysical reasoning. Since Franklin was interested in being practical, there was also a practical side to his religious belief.

11What kind of a book is Poor Richard’s Almanacs? What qualities in this book are literary?

How did Franklin transform some of the well-known proverbs?

Key: Poor Richard’s Almanacs is a book of calendar and full of wise proverbs. Like any other almanacs, Poor Richard made forecasts of sunrises and sunsets, high and low tides, changes in lunar cycles in the same mathematical and natural methods. But what gave Franklin’s almanacs special literary and cultural value was the portrayal of the humorous Poor Richard as a character and the axioms of laconic wisdom printed on the margins of the pages.

Franklin was good at transforming some well-known proverbs. For example, he transformed “Three my keep counsel, if two be away” into “Three may keep a secret if two of them are dead” and “A gloved cat can catch no mice” into “The cat in gloves catches no mice”.

12Consider Franklin’s Autobiography as his self-portrait. In what sense is he writing for his contemporaries and in what sense for posterity? How does he present his life as an archetypal American success story, particularly as a self-made man? How does he disclose his beliefs and his life?

Key: Franklin himself was a very successful man and it was a normal thing for him to disclose his secret of being successful to the public in order to influence and encourage others to be successful. It might be a good thing for the public in Franklin’s eye. On the other hand, Franklin thought that it was his duty to let his posterity know about their ancestor’s stories and achievements.

He told his own story in an authentic way, which was indeed a story of American success. The first part portrays Franklin as a young man in Boston and Philadelphia. The narrative point of view is that of a more understanding older Franklin. Through his eyes, we see the young Franklin, with his many faults, succeeds because of his industry and the willingness to learn from his errors. In the second part, Franklin recounts his youthful attempt to achieve “moral perfection.” The third part reveals how the adult Franklin uses his principles of conduct in order to perform his roles as a scientist, philanthropist and a politician.

13Write an essay comparing Franklin to John Smith and discuss how their narratives are meant to project a certain image of themselves. Also, compare Franklin to Mary Rowlandson in that they both use autobiography for didactic purposes.

Key: Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography is the simple yet immensely fascinating record of a man rising to wealth and fame from a state of poverty and obscurity into which he was born, the faithful account of the colorful career of American’s first self-made man. It is also an eloquent elucidation of the fact that Franklin was a spokesman for the new order of eighteenth-century enlightenment. It is also a Puritan document. It is a record of self-examination and self-improvement. The book is also a convincing illustration of the Puritan ethic that, in order to get on in the world, one has to be industrial, frugal and prudent.

John Smith wrote his works based on the real experiences and events of himself and his time. To a great extent, he was writing works of memoirs or autobiography. More importantly, he also wrote an autobiography, The True Travels, Adventure, and Observations of Captain John Smith (1630), which projects a certain and clear image of himself to the reader.

Mary Rowlandson wrote A Narrative of the Captivity and Restauration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson, which is one of the first best-sellers in American literature. The “I” narrator in this work quotes the Bible frequently, which achieves the author’s didactic purposes. As to Franklin, in his Poor Richard’s Almanacs, he used a lot of proverbs so as to inform the reader of the profound and pedagogical meanings. What’s more, in the second part of The Autobiography, he listed 13 virtues that a man should have if he wants to be successful, which is tainted with a more striking didactic color.

14What are the criticisms of Franklin from such renowned authors as Nathaniel Hawthorne, Mark Twain, and D. H. Lawrence? Do you agree with them to some extent?

Key: Although Franklin is admired by many, he is also severely criticized by some prominent individuals such as Nathaniel Hawthorne, Mark Twain, and D. H. Lawrence. Nathaniel Hawthorne remarked that Franklin’s axioms “teach men but a very small portion of their duties ... They are all about getting money or saving it”. Mark Twain did not like the effects of Franklin’s teaching on young boys. He said that Franklin was “full of animosity towards boys” and that Franklin was always telling them how not to waste time. D. H. Lawrence’s criticism was more comprehensive, incisive and often insightful. In his well-known Studies in Classic American Literature, Lawrence includes a whole chapter on Franklin. Lawrence laughs at Franklin’s idea that man can be perfected, saying that it would be like the “perfectibility of the Ford car.”

Yes, to some extent, I agree with their ideas, which seem to be very reasonable and convincing.

15Write an essay to explore the connection between Thomas Paine’s life and his writing. What is extraordinary about Thomas Paine’s life? What are the well-known essays written by Thomas Paine? What philosophical concepts and practical purposes motivated these essays?

Key: Thomas Paine tried several occupations, as corset maker, sailor, teacher, tax collector, tobacconist, and grocer, all with disappointing results. In 1774, when Paine was 37 years old he came to America, with a letter of introduction from Franklin. In his adopted country, the United States, Paine stood on the side against his native country. He studied pamphlets Americans had written since 1760 in opposition to British policies in the colonies. He soon established as a revolutionary journalist and pamphleteer. It was Paine who famously declared: “Where liberty is, there is my country.”

Paine’s approach to writing was pragmatic. He responded to contemporary events in order to inspire, not to be original. His style may be simple but it is powerful, strengthened by incisive logic, sarcasm, and passion. This style derived its power not only from Paine’s own ardor but also from the American tradition of pragmatism that can be traced back to William Bradford and the Mayflower Compact. His power also came from his belief in the natural reason and in the conviction that all men are united in the desire for freedom.

The War of Independence was less than a year old when his pamphlet Common Sense was published. Many at the time were still uncertain about the need for independence. Common Sense swayed many to support the Revolution. Within three months of its publication, it sold 100,000 copies.

After the shots were fired at Lexington, Massachusetts, on July 4, 1776, Paine shouldered a gun and joined the army. But after a series of losses of battles, desertions from the Revolutionary Army increased. The commander George Washington retreated across the Delaware and a defeat seemed imminent. A week before Christmas, George Washington said in a letter to his brother: “I think the game is very near up.” Paine, however, faced up the situation. On December19, he published the first papers of The American Crisis. The opening sentences were a passionate call for revival. The paper again boosted the morale. Enlistment in the army increased. Washington ordered that the paper be read to every regiment.

16Name some specific ideas and authors that constituted Thomas Jefferson’s education. Are there any gaps in this education that is also worth commenting?

Key: Thomas Jefferson read widely in the classics, English law, and such thinkers as Harrington, Milton, Hobbes, Locke, and Voltaire, but he never read Rousseau. It means that his philosophical study is not perfectly comprehensive.

17Is The Declaration of Independence simply a legal document? What elements other than the legal authority lend power to this document? Identify effective rhetorical devices in the document.

Key: No, The Declaration of Independence is not simply a legal document. It was drafted in June, 1776 and was at once a national symbol of liberty and a monument to Jefferson as a statesman and author. In lofty eloquence and unforgettable phrasing, the document expressed the convictions in the hearts and minds of the American people. Embedded in the political philosophy (ideals of individual liberty) which Locke and the continental philosophers had expressed, Jefferson summarized this philosophy as “self-evident truths” and set forth a long list of grievances against King George III in order to justify the separation of the colonies from Britain.

The stylistic achievement of the Declaration deserves a closer analysis. The text falls into five sections—the introduction, the preamble, the indictment of King George III, the denunciation of the British people, and the conclusion.

In some parts of the Declaration, the style is direct, simple, precise, and rigorous. One word follows another with complete inevitability of sound and meaning.

18In what ways is Hamilton a contrast to Jefferson?

Key: Hamilton is a foil to Jefferson just as The Federalist Papers he coauthored with James Madison and Jay is a contrast to The Declaration of Independence. The Federalist Papers minimalized arguments based on natural rights. The papers suggested that the Constitution established a republican government rather than a democratic one. If The Declaration mobilized the Americans into the revolution, the Federalist stabilized the political and economic system. Hamilton’s ideas supported a de facto governing aristocracy which is supervised for the prevention of corruption.

His economic vision surpassed that of Jefferson.

19What is the federalism that Hamilton has come to represent?

Key: Hamilton’s The Federalist Papers suggested that the Constitution established a republican government rather than a democratic one. Through checks and balances, this republican apparatus can prevent factions from suppressing minority views. These papers laid the basis of the Federalist system and economic future of the United States.

20Give a general assessment of American poetry, drama and the novel in this period by discussing Philip Freneau, Royall Tyler, William Hill Brown, Charles Brockden Brown, and Hugh Henry Brackenridge.

Key: In this period, American poetry, drama and novel developed quickly and all had their distinguished representatives. Freneau wrote primarily poetry. His enthusiastic celebration of all things American produced some exceptional poems, making him a forerunner of American Romanticism. Before Whitman, no other poet celebrated America as passionately as Freneau did. He used satire as a main poetic device and a political weapon against the British during the war. He wrote many famous poems that being read till today, such as “The Rising Glory of America”, “To a Wild Honeysuckle”, “To the Memory of the Brave Americans” and so on.

Tyler is a dramatist best known for The Contrast (staged in 1787 and published in 1790), which was the first performed American comedy and therefore a milestone in American theatrical history. Tyler’s satirical skills are seen in many contrasts the play offers. The Contrast gives a sense of the kind of entertainment liked by citizens of the new nation, and is thus a sample of the popular culture then.

William Hill Brown was a novelist, and his representative work is The Power of Sympathy (1789), which followed the sentimental mode and its characteristic theme of seduction.

Charles Brockden Brown was a novelist who presented a chaotic vision of the world and the human nature, in contrast to the more optimistic vision of the founding fathers and other Enlightenment writers. His style was influenced by the Gothic romance that emphasizes horror and by the Richardsonian sentimentalism which is seen in the kind of introspection found in his novels. His representative works include Alcuin, Wieland, Ormond and Edgar Huntly; or Memoirs of a Sleep-Walker.

Hugh Henry Brackenridge wrote blank verse dramas, but his reputation was more associated with his novel Modern Chivalry (1792-1815). The novel takes the outward form of a picaresque novel, and it has many of the stock elements of 18th century British novels.