第2章　动物与人类语言

Study questions

1Why is reflexivity considered to be a special property of human language?

Key: It is the distinguishing feature of human language which means: Using the language to think and talk about the language itself. Animals communicate with each other differently and they don’t reflect on the way they create their communicative messages or reviewing how they work. (Donkeys don’t bark about barking).

2What kind of evidence is used to support the idea that language is culturally transmitted?

Key: One example of the cultural transmission of language is a child whither physical features inherited from its natural parents. For example Korean who, if adopted at birth by English speakers, will grow up speaking English not Korean.

3What is the difference between a communication system with productivity and one with fixed reference?

Key: With productivity, the system can create new expressions, infinites；With fixed reference, there are a fixed number of signals in the system and each signal only relates to a particular object or occasion.

4How did the Gardner’s try to show that Washoe was not simply repeating signs made by interacting humans?

Key: He did an experiment in which Washoe could identify words through objects in pictures. In 3 years Washoe could use more than 100 words and combine them.

5If Sarah could use a gray plastic shape to convey the meaning of the word red, which property does her “language” seem to have?

Key: Arbitrariness (Because there is no relationship between the plastic with the meaning of red)

6What was considered to be the key element in Kanzi’s language learning?

Key: Kanzi learned being exposed and observed a kind of language in use at a very early age (symbol system)

Tasks

A. In studies of communication involving animals and humans, there is sometimes a reference to “the Clever Hans phenomenon.” Who or what was Clever Hans, why was he/she/it famous and what exactly is the “phenomenon”?

Key: The term refers to a horse (Kluge Hans, referred to in the literature as “Clever Hans”) who responded to questions requiring mathematical calculations by tapping his hoof. It’s a form of involuntary and unconscious cuing.

B. We recognized a distinction early in the chapter between communicative and informative signals. How would “body language” be characterized? Also, what kind of signaling is involved in “distance zones”? What about “eye contact” and “eyebrow flashes”?

Key: (1) Body language

① Advantage of body language:

Body language is an indirect way of communication. Thus, what is said with it can be taken back.

② Disadvantages:

a. It is extremely difficult and even dangerous to use because the background activity we want to use for communication can result in an actual action.

b. It is very difficult to interpret because often there are many thoughts involved.

c. Absence of body language is often wrongly interpreted as consent leading to disasters.

(2) The distance between two people conveys a desire for intimacy or lack of interest. It can also trigger control or fear, such as during police interrogations or when criminal activity is contemplated.

(3) Eye contact is obvious, powerful, and arousing. Direct eye contact shows self-confidence and can show that you’re very interested, or that you mean what you are saying. It has been known to boost physiological interest.

(4) The eyebrow flash is a universally recognized unconscious social signal, wherein a person, wishing to approach another whom they recognize and are preparing for social contact, raises their eyebrows for approximately one-sixth of a second. People generally return an eyebrow flash, unless it was given by someone whom they do not know, or someone who looks away immediately after. The message must be interpreted in context. Psychologists and sociologists say that eyebrow raising can be a reaction to fear or surprise.

C. What is meant by “sound symbolism” and how does it relate to the property of arbitrariness?

Key: (1) Sound symbolism is the idea that the individual sounds within a word have meaning in and of themselves. Onomatopoeia is an example of this belief.

In a nutshell: Sound symbolism = the phonemes in a word mean something all by themselves.

(2) The property of arbitrariness is basically the opposite of sound symbolism. Arbitrariness posits that words come to represent something in the physical world with no real rhyme or reason behind how the word itself sounds.

In a nutshell: Arbitrariness = the phonemes in a word mean nothing.

D. What was the significance of the name given to the chimpanzee in the research conducted by the psychologist Herbert Terrace?

Key: Chomsky claimed that language is an innate ability and unique to the human species. Nim developed an ability to use language in much the same way as Washoe. Terrace argues that both Nim and Washoe only appeared to use signs as language. Thus, Chimpsky was given his name as a pun on Noam Chomsky.

E. We reviewed studies involving chimpanzees and bonobos learning to communicate with humans. Can only African apes accomplish this task? Are there any studies involving the Asian great ape, the orangutan, learning how to use a human communication system?

Key: Yes. For example, the orangutans are the two exclusively Asian species of extant great apes. Orangutans are among the most intelligent primates; they use a variety of sophisticated tools and construct elaborate sleeping nests each night from branches and foliage. The apes have been extensively studied for their learning abilities. There may even be distinctive cultures within populations.