结束大规模监禁:我们应该做些什么
大规模监禁是多种原因共同作用的结果,这些原因包括治安惯例、量刑政策、对物质滥用和精神疾病的应对、教育和就业机会的匮乏,以及某些经济和政治方面的影响。要有效解决这个问题也需要从多个方面入手,解决方案需要获得经验的支持,并在实施时进行评估以检验它的预期和非预期效果。以下是我们认为比较关键的几种策略。
指导原则,评估和必要时的转变过程。美国国家研究委员会2014年就主张[39],虽然人要为自己的行为负责,但我们在打击犯罪时要充分考虑到入狱可能会给个人、家庭、社区和社会带来的严重后果,也要考虑以下四个原则:(1)违法行为的判决和它的严重程度要成正比;(2)要简短,判决时长不能超过需要的时长;(3)公民权,监禁不能长时间地侵害公民的权利;(4)社会公正,通过监禁能达到合理、公正的社会目标。我们拥护这些主张并进一步指出,根据这些原则而制定的策略和实践带来的预期和非预期效果必须经过无党派人士的严格评估。在当前大规模监禁的背景之下,我们必须提出一个显而易见却又往往被忽视的观点:我们不应该继续资助失败的政策和实践,特别是当它们对个人、家庭、社区和社会造成了可怕的后果之后。
量刑。量刑改革正在努力缩短刑期和服刑时间。例如,加州最近通过了第47号修正案(Proposition 47),将6种无暴力犯罪前科的非暴力犯罪从重罪降为了轻罪,这样的话,监狱关押的人数预计会减少,而刑期会缩短。2012年,加利福尼亚州(California)通过了第36号修正案(Proposition 36),为那些非暴力、不严重的“第三次”定罪者提供重新判决的机会。2015年发表于《纽约时报》的一篇文章[40]报道说,在过去的18个月里,在加州曾经被判无期后被释放的罪犯中只有4.7%的人再次入狱(通常是因为盗窃或与毒品有关的指控),而总体的再入狱率为45%。虽然这些努力反映出我们在解决大规模监禁问题的道路上已经迈出了重要的步伐,但是还有很多人指出,对更严重的罪行进行量刑改革也非常重要。“在大部分情况下,我们可以将暴力犯罪的判刑减少一半,而这并不会显著削弱法律的威慑力或增加再犯的风险。”[41]除了依照以上原则来审查量刑,立即处理法庭的积压案件也很重要,这样可以维护犯罪嫌疑人的快速审判权。
行政赦免。现在的行政赦免(总统或州长给予宽大处理或赦免)十分罕见,这是和21世纪上半叶相比最为明显的改变[42]。据记录,巴拉克·奥巴马总统给予了有限的几次行政赦免,但这在他的总统任期结束后也许会有所改变[43]。最近,他给61名因为毒品问题而被判刑的犯人进行了减刑。据报道,截至2016年3月30日,因为他而获得减刑的犯人总数已达248人[44]。虽然各州之间存在差异,但是州长们都很少行使这项权力。
分析政策对不同的民族、种族和性别的影响。所有和监禁有关的政策都应该包含被“量刑计划”称为“种族影响报告”(Racial Impact Statement)方面的内容[45],这个报告会在实施前分析政策对民族和种族的相关影响。另外,我们认为在实施前还要分析政策对性别的影响,并在实施后分析政策对民族、种族和性别三者的影响。
毒品法改革。联邦和州政府开始辨别哪些刑事司法政策和实践没有效果,这时改革已经开始了。例如,纽约的《洛克菲勒禁毒法》(Rockefeller Drug Laws)被废除了[该法律因纳尔逊·洛克菲勒(Nelson Rockefeller)州长而得名,他倡导了这项1973年出台的法律,它通常被认为是全国范围内最为严苛的禁毒法,强制判处销售两盎司(ounce)或持有四盎司可卡因、海洛因和大麻等毒品的人15年至无期的监禁],这让更多的人去接受治疗而不是被关进监狱[46]。数个州出台了一些法案来降低对各种毒品指控的处罚,为那些被指控的人提供了除坐牢之外的一些替代方案。特别是因为这些卷入刑事司法系统(即被监禁)的个体非常容易受到迫害或产生物质滥用和心理健康问题[47],所以当务之急是考虑拘禁之外的其他解决方法,为治疗和服务提供途径,并通过减少监禁的使用来解决这些潜在的问题。
替代监禁的措施。我们必须进一步开发、研究并广泛采用(当它表现出积极效果的时候)一系列替代监禁的措施。虽然不是没有批评意见,但与其他方法相比,成人毒品法庭能降低物质滥用及再次卷入刑事司法系统的风险,它需要协调物质滥用治疗、社会服务,以及刑事司法程序与监管之间的关系[48]。精神卫生法庭类似毒品法庭,把精神病患者转介到治疗机构并由法院进行监管,而不是将他们关在监狱里面。在多个地区进行的研究发现,与接受常规治疗的人相比,参加精神卫生法庭的人每年无论是被捕人次还是被监禁天数都要更少[49]。
激励的改革。联邦政府向城市和州提供了约40亿美元用于刑事司法活动。然而,当前的资助体系会为逮捕和缴获提供物质奖励。它的替代方案是,当州和城市实施的方案能够既能保障公共安全又能减少监禁时,联邦政府才可以提供财政奖励[50]。
实证导向,强调再次融入社区。监禁会通过任何一种你可以想象得到的方式破坏人们的生活,让人们在出狱后试图再次融入社区时遇到几乎不可逾越的障碍。更为雪上加霜的是,因为有了案底,这些人很难获得一般的住房、工作及教育资源。重罪记录带来的歧视会持续一生,就像劳雷莱·莱德(Lorelei Laird)2013年在《美国律师协会学报》(American Bar Association Journal)上发表的文章里写的那样,是“5万种法律规定的附属结果”。大约有93%的服刑人员会在一定时期内被释放[51],因此非常有必要从他们被监禁的那天起就着手解决他们重返社区的问题。《纽约时报》2015年的一篇报道中提到的挪威的一座看守最为严格的监狱——哈尔登(Halden),就是印证了这种取向。它的基本方向是帮助人们做好准备,让他们能在监禁结束后顺利地回归社区。监狱里的许多惯例和组织结构都有助于实现这个目标。但我们必须特别关注的是,要在每个人离开监狱前都为他们回归社会做好准备,确保他们能够获得必要的住房、工作和社会方面的支持。在美国开展的一些研究特别指出,住房、满足基本需求的能力、享受医疗保健的机会和对物质滥用问题的关注都非常重要,是避免他们因再次犯罪而被监禁的重要因素[52]。然而,我们对以社区为基础的、试图解决这些需求的综合性再融入项目进行了评估,并发现了不一致的结果。有些研究发现,这些项目对再次卷入刑事司法系统和毒品复吸产生了积极的影响,而另一些研究却没有发现什么影响,甚至还发现了消极的影响[53]。至关重要的是,在美国,我们将优先考虑以下三个方面的内容:(1)对社区再融入项目进行研究,(2)确定哪些方法是行之有效的,(3)吸收并利用那些获得实证支持的项目。
以家庭为主的服务。个体监禁会对家庭、社会网络及通常情况下的社区产生连锁作用。越来越多的研究建议要解决育儿问题,而让孩子与服刑的父母保持联系能带来一些积极的效果,例如降低父母再次卷入刑事司法系统的风险。但是,很少有地方提供这项服务。就算有地方提供了这项服务,它也很少包括儿童的看护人[54]。我们需要集合来自重要的支持者和儿童看护人的多方面的力量,这样会拥有巨大的、尚未被发掘出来的潜力,并能带来多方面的积极效果,如改善家庭关系和情绪体验、降低个人再次被监禁的风险等。这个领域的研究和项目发展对实现这种未被挖掘的潜力来说至关重要。另外,提供给受监禁影响的家庭的资源必须分布很广,这一点也非常重要。例如,《芝麻街》(Sesame Street)的工具箱“小朋友,大挑战:监禁”(Little Children,Big Challenges:Incarceration)就是这样一种资源,它提供了一种对儿童来说很友好的工具来帮助儿童理解监禁、应对它的影响并维持家庭关系。然而这样的工具箱也受到了批评,因为它的资金部分来自BAE系统慈善分部,而这个分部是美国国防部(Department of Defense)的一个承包商,它的劳力来自被监禁在营利性机构的人们[55]。
物质滥用的治疗。在美国,要获取得到实证支持的物质滥用治疗还存在很大的缺口,我们需要确保人们可以获得各式各样的、有实证支持的、针对物质滥用问题的心理、社会和药物干预方法,包括那些在广泛的社会和监禁背景下可以同时解决精神卫生和心理创伤问题的干预手段,而回归社区就能有效地减少监禁。这项干预策略的关键之处在于,美国需要把对物质滥用的回应从道德和犯罪的视角转向公共卫生的视角,这种视角认为物质滥用及其相关问题都有着非常复杂的影响因素,我们要通过科学来提升个体、家庭、社区和社会的健康和幸福感[56]。
越来越多的研究建议在监狱中推广物质滥用治疗,特别是在服刑人员回归社区,可以获取以社区为基础的治疗的时候[57];然而,在实现这一点的过程中会接连遇到很多挑战,这些挑战包括:确保能在监狱中获得该服务,在人们回归社区时为他们联系物质滥用治疗机构,并支持他们能够持续地在社区接受物质滥用治疗[58]。新兴的研究发现药物治疗,如美沙酮(methadone)、丁丙诺啡(buprenorphine)和纳曲酮(naltrexone)可以有效地减少回归社区后的物质滥用行为[59]。例如,对那些对鸦片类药物(opioid,如处方类止痛药和海洛因)成瘾的人来说,维他命醇(Vivitrol)——一种每月注射一次的纳曲酮缓释剂,可以降低他们出狱后再次使用鸦片类药物的概率[60]。例如,肯塔基州(Kentucky)的“监督激励责任和治疗项目”(Supervision Motivation Accountable Responsibility and Treatment Program)就是一个通过合作诊所来提供维他命醇的缓刑期服务项目[61]。
精神卫生治疗。社区资源的匮乏以及对精神卫生问题和治疗的污名化的共同作用,使精神病患者没有办法得到他们需要的支持。这种负面作用在去机构化(deinstitutionalization)开始之后引发了更多问题。去机构化始于1955年,它把人们从州立精神病院中转移出来并极大地削弱了这些医院的职能。据一份来自治疗倡导中心(Treatment Advocacy Center)的报告估计[62],关押在监狱和拘留所里的严重精神病患的人数是州立精神病院的10倍。各种针对精神病患者的干预项目都要求缩减刑期及相关费用,而这些治疗的花费已经超过了相应的社区治疗的费用[63]。我们需要的干预包括:能够获得有实证支持的精神卫生治疗以及综合性物质滥用治疗,能够获得住房、职业资源和社会服务,这种服务可以帮助精神病患者以及他们的家庭和社区维持良好的功能运作和生活品质[64]。我们还需要尽早地采取措施来降低初次和持续卷入刑事司法系统可能带来的风险,包括警方对精神病患者更为友好的反应。例如,危机干预团队里要有受过训练的警察和合作的医疗中心,这些警察接受过相关培训知道如何对精神病患者做出回应,而医疗中心则负责提供应急的精神卫生服务[65]。尽管得到的结果并不一致,但是使用这些团队可能会降低逮捕率并减缓精神疾病症状,并加强精神病患者和精神卫生服务之间的联系[66]。研究还支持给那些既有精神疾病又有物质滥用问题的人提供监狱分流项目,认为这样可能会缩短他们的服刑时间并提高他们的治疗参与度[67]。如果不能分流,那就需要提供适当的精神卫生治疗和需要的医疗服务,这些对被监禁的精神病患者来说都是非常必要的。而且我们还需要确保,他们在回归社区后可以和社区治疗与服务保持联系[68]。《平价医疗法案》给那些选择拓展医疗补助计划的州提供了一些资金上的支持,该计划为从监狱回归社区的人们提供了精神卫生和物质滥用服务。
教育。教育包括完成高中和大学学业,它能降低入狱的风险[69]。美国民权联盟发现了很多导致“从学校进入监狱”的原因,基于这些原因,教育必须做到以下几点:
(1)公立学校必须拥有充足的资金和资源,这样所有的学生都能茁壮成长并且不会辍学;
(2)校规程序正当且均衡;
(3)审核并采用最有效的方法来确保学生的安全,支持他们与其他同学、与教职工之间的关系,避免警察出现在学校里(有些人可能会觉得很惊讶,有些学校里竟然有警察在走廊里巡逻并惩处非暴力的破坏行为);
(4)对感化学校进行适当的监督,确保学生接受的教育可以帮助他们在毕业后拥有更多的发展机会;
(5)青少年司法制度要提供合适的司法代理、恰当的教育机会,以及有助于青少年走上正轨的策略。
草根阶层的力量。持续的来自草根阶层的力量非常重要,它可以确保人们会一直关注大规模监禁,而且背后会有多方面的策略来帮助解决那些推动大规模监禁的各式各样的复杂因素。许多个人和团体都支持更高水平的公平和公正、更完善的移民政策、重刑的减少,以及避免监禁的持久影响。来自草根阶层的支持能够起到非常大的作用。例如,根据“量刑计划”的描述,“寻求公正”(Out for Justice)和“就业机会特别工作组”(Job Opportunities Task Force)通力合作,在2015年《马里兰州二次机会法案》(Maryland Second Chance Act)的颁布中扮演了重要的角色。想要了解和参与更多解决大规模监禁问题的行动,欢迎去http://newjimcrow.com/take-action浏览更多的相关资源和机构信息。
越来越多的人开始承认,美国的大规模监禁规模宏大,并且需要我们立即行动起来以减轻它对个人、家庭、社区和社会的影响。为了达到预期的效果,这种行动要关注那些能够解决相关社会问题的全方位策略。让我们利用现在那些呼吁改变的声音,确保国家会优先考虑那些针对大规模监禁的、获得了实证支持的全方位行动,这样就可以更好地实现美国社会是一个公正社会的承诺。
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[1] New York Times Editorial Board,2014.
[2] Kyckelhahn,2015.
[3] Kaeble,Glaze,Tsoutis,& Minton,2015.
[4] Alexander,2010;Carson,2014,2015;Engstrom,2008;Gottschalk,2015;James & Glaze,2006;Karberg & James,2005;Mauer & King,2007;Mu-mola & Karberg,2006;National Research Council,2014;Prins,2014;Sc-hirmer,Nellis,& Mauer,2009;Teplin,1990,1994;Teplin,Abram,& McClelland,1996;Torrey et al.,2014.
[5] National Research Council,2014.
[6] Roeder,Eisen,& Bowling,2015.
[7] Engstrom,2008;National Research Council,2014;New York Times Editorial Board,2014.
[8] Jed Rakoff,2014.
[9] Devers,2011.
[10] Marie Gottschalk,2015.
[11] Patrick Leahy,2013.
[12] Bureau of Justice Statistics,2015;Minton & Golinelli,2014;Neal,2012.
[13] Gonnerman,2014,2015;Schwirtz & Winerip,2015.
[14] Epperson & Pettus-Davis,2015;New York Times Editorial Board,2014;Stiglitz,2015.
[15] Lee,2015.
[16] Carson,2015.
[17] Kaebl etal.,2015.
[18] Kaebl etal.,2015.
[19] Bryan Stevenson,2014.
[20] Glaze & Kaeble,2014;Minton & Zeng,2015.
[21] Minton & Zeng,2015.
[22] Glaze & Kaeble,2014.
[23] Carson,2015;U.S Census Bureau,2014.
[24] Maure & King,2007.
[25] Gottschalk,2015.
[26] Guerino,Harrison,& Sabol,2012;Kilgore,2014.
[27] Glaze & Maruschak,2010.
[28] Schirmer,Nellis,& Mauer,2009.
[29] Poehlmann & Eddy,2013.
[30] Engstrom,2008.
[31] Engstrom,2008.
[32] Harlow,1999;James & Glaze,2006;National Research Council,2014;Te-plin,1990,1994;Teplin,Abram,& McClelland,1996;Winham,Engst-rom,Golder,Renn,Higgins,& Logan,2015.
[33] Fields & Phillips,2013.
[34] James & Glaze,2006;Teplin,Abram,& McClelland,1997.
[35] Evans,Li,Pierce,& Hser,2013;Garnick etal.,2014;Kissin,Tang,Ca-mpbell,Claus,& Orwin,2014;Van Dorn,Desmarais,Petrila,Haynes,& Singh,2013.
[36] Karberg & James,2005;Mumola & Karberg,2006.
[37] Belenko & Peugh,2005;Karberg & James,2005;Mumola & Karberg,2006;Taxman,Perdoni,& Harrison,2007.
[38] Marie Gottschalk,2015.
[39] National Research Council,2014.
[40] Eckholm,2015.
[41] Marc Mauer and David Cole,2015.
[42] Gottschalk,2015.
[43] Sink,2015;Shear,2016.
[44] Shear,2016.
[45] Mauer & King,2007.
[46] Parsons,2015.
[47] Harlow,1999;James & Glaze,2006;National Research Council,2014;Teplin,1990,1994;Teplin,Abram,& McClelland,1996;Winham et al.,2015.
[48] Mitchell,Wilson,Eggers,& MacKenzie,2012.
[49] Steadman,Redlich,Callahan,Robbins,& Vesselinov,2011.
[50] Chettiar,2014;Fortier & Chettiar,2014.
[51] Petersilia,2003.
[52] Ereudenberg,Daniels,Crum,Perkins,& Richie,2005;Mallik-Kane & Vi-sher,2008;Luther,Reichert,Holloway,Roth,& Aalsma,2011.
[53] Grommon,Davidson,& Bynum,2013.
[54] 如需进一步讨论,请参阅Engstrom,2008.
[55] Trotter,2013.
[56] Miller,Forcehimes,& Zweben,2011.
[57] Belenko,Hiller,& Hamilton,2013;Chandler,Fletcher,& Volkow,2009;Grommon et al.,2013;National Institute on Drug Abuse,2007;Taxman,2009.
[58] Belenko & Peugn,2005;Belenko,et al.,2013;Chandler et al.,2009;Grommon et al.,2013;Karberg & James,2005;Mumola & Karberg,2006;Taxman,2009;Taxman et al.,2007.
[59] Belenlo et al.,2013;Chandler et al.,2009;National Institute on Drug Use,2007;Taxman,2009.
[60] Lee et al.,2015.
[61] Associated Press,2015.
[62] Torrey et al.,2014.
[63] 例如,American Psychiatric Association,2001.
[64] Corrigan,2016;Lamberti,Weisman,& Faden,2004.
[65] Corrigan,2016;Watson & Fulambarker,2012.
[66] Arey,Wilder,Normore,Iannazzo,& Javidi,2016;Taheri,2016;Watson & Fulambarker,2012.
[67] Steadman & Naples,2005.
[68] Corrigan,2016.
[69] National Research Council,2014.