第八章 气道重塑及其检测
气道重塑是支气管哮喘(以下简称哮喘)和慢性阻塞性肺疾病(chronic obstructive pulmonary disease,COPD,简称慢阻肺)的特征病理变化,其定义为可测定的气道结构改变和结构间相互关系的改变,是两病慢性炎症反应的结果和临床病理生理变化(气流阻塞)的原因,与气道功能和临床表现密切相关。
气道重塑的可检测的改变主要有上皮层的变化,气道平滑肌增生肥大和平滑肌和细胞外基质组织(ECM)的增加。上皮层是炎症反应的重要场所,上皮细胞可产生大量的炎症介质,对气道重塑有重要意义,上皮层的改变以上皮的脱落、增厚、杯状细胞增生、上皮细胞的倒伏等为特征,主要出现在哮喘病人,而COPD也是以上皮层增厚和杯状细胞增生为主,上皮化生是特征。平滑肌增生和肥大是气道壁增厚的重要原因,尤其对哮喘病人,大气道和小气道的平滑肌均明显增生和肥大;而COPD的平滑肌增生主要在小气道。但有研究认为平滑肌的增生有时与平滑肌ECM相混淆,近年的研究对ECM的情况较为重视,认为ECM为不定型物质,由蛋白多糖和氨基蛋白多糖与液体混合而成,ECM功能强大,包括气道组织定型、液体平衡、细胞移动结构蛋白的组合与聚集、生长因子和细胞因子的调节及渗透性调节。它的改变也导致组织功能的改变,故ECM增加会导致平滑肌层的增加,它的改变会导致气道顺应性的改变,特别是哮喘病人气道功能的改变,由于ECM可以在平滑肌的肌束间增加,研究更显困难。对于ECM在COPD病人气道改变的研究报道不多。
喘鸣、气短、胸闷、咳嗽是哮喘的特征性临床症状,这些症状被认为与气道广泛的、可变的气流受限有关。引起这些临床表现的根本原因不仅是气道高反应和炎症,还有气道壁的结构重塑,这种结构重塑存在于患者的大、小气道,主要发生在气道上皮、平滑肌和细胞外基质组织(ECM)。研究表明,哮喘的气道上皮增厚,伴有杯状细胞增生、上皮细胞脱落和活力减退。哮喘患者的大气道和小气道都被证实存在着平滑肌细胞的增生和肥大,平滑肌体积增加。哮喘患者气道重塑的另一重要结构是ECM,气道的ECM起到气道结构的支持、液体平衡、细胞迁移、结构蛋白聚集的重要作用,也是细胞因子的加工场所。哮喘患者气道的ECM成分包括胶原蛋白、蛋白聚糖等增加,平滑肌束内的这些改变还可使平滑肌体积进一步增加、顺应性减退。另外,哮喘患者气道壁还存在着血管增生和充血,血管体积增加和渗出不仅直接导致管壁变厚,还会加重因平滑肌收缩所导致的管腔变小,而管腔的变窄以及由此引起的肺过度充气是患者哮喘发作时的临床症状的主要原因。哮喘患者的黏膜上皮、网状基底膜、黏膜下层、黏液腺和平滑肌都有增厚,并且这些气道壁成分的增厚与病情严重程度相关。尽管如此,在非急性发作期,哮喘患者气道的管腔很少会因为气道壁的增厚而变小,气道阻力只比正常人增加<10%,故病情较轻的哮喘患者处于缓解期时,肺功能大多正常。气道高反应是哮喘患者的重要临床特征,与气道重塑有着密切的关系,哮喘患者气道的网状基底膜厚度、平滑肌厚度和上皮下成纤维细胞数量都与患者的气道反应性呈正相关。
COPD患者的气道也存在着结构重塑。很多研究都证明COPD患者小气道(直径<2mm的气道)发生气道重塑。COPD患者小气道存在着上皮增厚和杯状细胞增生,同时还有上皮化生。COPD患者的气道平滑肌是否增加至今仍无定论,有研究表明老年、吸烟和气流受限较严重的患者小气道平滑肌明显增加,但是COPD患者的气道平滑肌增加不如哮喘患者明显。现多认为COPD气道壁存在纤维化,气道上皮、网状基底膜、平滑肌和黏膜下层黏液腺的炎症和纤维化过程导致气道壁的增厚。关于COPD大气道结构重塑的研究非常少,Tiddens等测量了COPD患者大气道的横截面积,发现从基底膜到平滑肌层的横截面积明显增大,并且与FEV1/FVC明显相关,这表明COPD患者的大气道同样存在着结构改变。COPD患者的大气道亦存在炎症反应,而这与大气道的结构重塑有着密切的关系。除了气道病变,COPD的病理改变还包括肺实质的破坏,尽管如此,COPD的气道重塑是导致患者气流受限的重要结构改变。与哮喘不同,COPD患者的气道管腔因为气道壁的增厚而明显变小,并且这种变化与肺功能的下降相关。
尽管是“可测定的”结构变化,但临床上对气道重塑的认识也是很不清楚的,主要是以下方面:①气道重塑是肯定存在的,但对其结构改变的特征还是不太清楚,对其所涉及的结构成分也不十分明确;②气道重塑可以治疗和改善吗,一般认识是难以改变的,但随着近年的一些研究显示气道重塑是可以治疗并改善的,但如何改善、达到改善需要的时间以及不同病情阶段患者其改善的程度仍无定论;③气道重塑是导致病理生理改变的原因,是有害的,但有研究认为该变化对原发的损害有一定的保护作用等。这些疑问存在多年,一直不清楚,原因是没有一个形态测定工具进行有效的对照研究。如今关于气道重塑的干预治疗日益受到重视,故寻求有效的方法检测气道重塑并为气流受限的研究提供更多的信息非常重要。
气道病理组织学标本检测是临床上最准确的检测方法,可分析各层结构及细胞成分,应是最能反映实际情况的检测方法,但作为有创检测,并不适宜反复进行,同时病理标本在处理过程变形严重,不能作为对照比较研究,此外,在活体咬取的气道黏膜标本并不能反映气道壁完整的结构,与功能的相关研究更是难以进行。
目前最成熟的气道重塑的检测技术是X线体层扫描技术(CT),尤其是螺旋CT(Multidetector CT,MDCT)扫描图像,可无创、直观、精确地测量气道径线,评估气道壁厚度、有效通气管腔面积,从而反映患者的气道的形态改变。研究表明,用CT测量支气管哮喘患者的支气管壁厚度与病情严重程度呈正相关,检测COPD患者气道重塑的方法也渐受关注。COPD患者气道重塑的部位为直径<2mm的小气道,而在CT图像上所能测量的最小气道直径为1.5mm~2.0mm,故应用CT直接测量小气道的径线很困难。然而Nakano等发现腔内周径大于0.75cm的较大气道的管壁厚度与小气道的管壁厚度有很强的相关性,Tiddens等也发现大气道的横截面积与COPD患者外周气道的炎症程度以及气流受限明显相关,故较大气道的形态异常可反映小气道重塑引起的形态、功能异常。应用扫描图像测量相应气道壁径线,分析气道壁径线与肺功能的相关关系,探讨COPD患者气道形态改变与肺功能异常的关系,为研究、检测COPD患者的气道重塑提供了更多的信息。
CT作为无创的影像学检查,其不仅能扫描气道全层并使其厚度得以测量,在一定程度上反映气道重塑的形态表现,并且由于CT有无创和可重复的优点,较活组织病理检查更适合在临床上推广,在研究气道重塑的机制和表现,以及评价疗效等临床用途方面更便于应用。然而气道重塑在各层结构中发生的程度和成分的变化是不均匀的,由于CT图像不能分辨气道壁的不同结构,而只能反映气道壁全层厚度的变化,故其应用还是存在着一定缺陷。而EBUS的20MHz探头可通过软体支气管镜活检工作道进入,产生气道横断面超声图像,可分层测定,探测距离达3cm,与MDCT相比,EBUS除了能探测气道壁全层的厚度,还具有较高的分辨率,能根据不同组织结构回声的高低,分辨5层~7层的气道壁结构,最里面的黏膜层显示为非常明亮的强回声;黏膜下层回声较低;软骨本身和软骨间结缔组织均为低回声,难以鉴别,但软骨内膜和软骨外膜为强回声,故EBUS与CT图像相比更能反映气道壁各层功能结构的形态改变,更准确地检测各层厚度的变化,进一步提高了重复检测气道重塑的准确性和可对比性。Yamasaki等报道他们对一例慢性持续期的哮喘患者应用EBUS检测气道黏膜下层水肿,并在其接受两周的孟鲁司特钠治疗后复查EBUS,发现黏膜下层水肿显著减轻,这说明EBUS在分辨气道壁各层结构以及测量、对比各层厚度具有独特的能力。此外,EBUS还有无X射线辐射的优点,检查的同时还能动态获得图像,易于重复测量,测量的设备自动化程度较高,安全性高。
我们应用气道内超声(EBUS)检测慢性阻塞性肺疾病(COPD)和支气管哮喘(以下简称哮喘)患者的气道重塑,并探讨EBUS测量的COPD和哮喘患者气道径线与患者肺功能之间的关系。60例受试者分为COPD组(20例)、哮喘组(20例)和对照组(20例),均进行EBUS及肺功能检查。EBUS检查受试者的左主支气管、左上叶支气管、右中叶支气管和右下叶后基底段支气管(B10),并测量其管壁总厚度(T)、黏膜层厚度(TL1)、黏膜下层厚度(TL2)、软骨层总厚度(TL3~L5)、管腔面积(Ai)和管壁面积(WA),以及分析COPD患者、哮喘患者气道径线与患者肺功能的相关关系。结果发现COPD患者1~4级支气管的气道壁明显增厚,尤其是黏膜层和黏膜下层,管腔有狭窄趋势,这些气道的径线与气流受限存在一定的相关性,并且这种相关关系在分级较高的支气管中较明显;哮喘患者1~4级支气管的气道壁明显增厚,尤其是黏膜层和黏膜下层,但是管腔面积无明显变化;哮喘患者的气道壁径线与肺功能的关系较弱。EBUS相对无创,并且可以精确地反映气道壁各层厚度的实际变化,是理想的气道形态学检测方法,并有希望成为COPD和哮喘患者气道重塑的诊断手段。
(陈正贤)
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